Text
Editionsbericht
Literatur
Two meanings of "lyric".
Like the word epic, the word lyric is used in both
a general and a more particular sense, having gradually
been extended from its original
meaning, – a poem to be sung by a
single singer, – to include all poetry
expressing subjectively the emotion of the poet or
those whom he represents. In this larger sense it
has come to include the great bulk of modern poetry,
[56] – so much so that Professor Gummere is led to
observe: "The history of modern verse, with epic
and drama in decay, is mainly the history of lyrical
sentiment." {Beginnings of Poetry, p. 147.) To
classify satisfactorily the great body of this lyrical
poetry is even more difficult than in the case of
narrative poetry. One thing its various forms have
in common: the expression of a single emotion or
imaginative conception.
Subjective character.
The subjective or personal standpoint of the lyric
must not be understood to imply either that it is
necessarily autobiographical or that it
represents the emotion of an individual standing quite by himself. For
the poet, like other artists, is capable of entering
into the experiences of the rest of humanity, not
simply of recording his own; or, to look at it from
the opposite standpoint, he makes the experiences
of others his own by means of his imaginative sympathy.
In the most primitive conditions, the lyrical
poet, like the epic poet, represents not himself so
much as the whole company of his fellows for
whom he sings and whom he leads in song; and
again in the very highest poetry he speaks not
simply for himself but for the universal instincts
of humanity. The earliest English song that has
survived is a song of summer and the cuckoo:
"Sumer is icumen in,
Lhude sing cuccu!"
[57] Here the nameless poet spoke for the pervading
sense of joy in the season which was felt by the
whole community and which they would join in
expressing. If we compare this song with that
great sonnet of Shakspere's, beginning –
"When in disgrace with fortune and men's eyes
I all alone beweep my outcast state, –"
we see that the latter, while it represents a maturer
sentiment and a more personal emotion, is still the
voice through which a common experience of humanity
makes itself felt. It does not at all follow
that Shakspere was "in disgrace with fortune and
men's eyes" at the time he wrote it.
*
Other great
lyrics, however, such as Burns's To Mary in
Heaven, Byron's Stanzas to Augusta, Milton's
Sonnet On his Blindness, and the lyrics of
Tennyson's In Memoriam, are known to be the definite
outcome of personal experiences.
Structure of the lyric.
Being thus the record of a single
emotion, and not dependent, like the
epic and the drama, upon the development of a series
of events or the presentation of
[58] character in completeness, the lyric has a more
absolute unity than any of the other forms of poetry,
and is usually – except where the intellectual or
reflective element is present to a marked degree –
decidedly brief. Its structure may be said to depend
in part upon its relation to the outer and the
inner worlds. Simplest of all is the lyric that
remains in the outer world, though it expresses the
inward emotion aroused by it; an example of this
type is the old English song referred to in the previous paragraph,
which begins and ends with the
coming of summer and the cuckoo. More familiar
is the lyric which takes its beginning at a point in
the outer world, but passes to the invisible world
of emotional reflection; of this type a great example
is Keats's Ode on a Grecian Urn, which takes its
point of departure at the visible object, and
passes to profoundly emotional reflection on the
immortality of the spirit of beauty. Or, still
further, we may have the lyric which is wholly of
the inner life, like certain of Shakspere's sonnets
(for example, that beginning "Poor soul, the
center of my sinful earth"). Lyrics of this last
class are most likely to be reflective, and hence to
move furthest away from the pure or song type.
Form of the lyric.
Finally, we may note that the forms
of lyrical poetry are more varied than
those of any of the classes. Originally
they adapt themselves to all manner of musical
melodies and accompaniments, and when, separating
[59] from music, they become purely literary, they preserve
this variety and adaptability. The lyric has
no need of the sustained dignity of the continuous
metrical movement of epic poetry; it requires more
rapid measures, adapting themselves to its more
direct and brilliant emotional expression, and for
this expression all the possibilities of rhythmical art
are drawn upon. There is no lyrical mood so
serious, so merry, so stirring, so languid, that it
does not find its appropriate metrical form. On
the other hand, the brevity and concentration of
the lyric demand a finer finish, a more cameo-like
accuracy of form, than the other classes of poetry;
hence, within the form chosen, the lyrical poet is
allowed less flexibility and freedom than the writer
of either epic or dramatic verse. A familiar poetic
license in epic or dramatic poetry becomes a conspicuous
fault in a lyric. The type is one forever
aspiring after infinite riches and perfect beauty "in
a little room."
The most useful discussions of lyrical poetry will
be found in
Hegel's work;
Werner's Lyrik und Lyriker;
Gummere's Beginnings of Poetry (especially
the chapter on "the Differencing Elements of Art");
Dr. John Erskine's Elizabethan Lyric (chapter i, on
"Lyrical Quality and Lyric Form");
the Introductions to Schelling's Elizabethan Lyrics and Seventeenth Century Lyrics;
the Introduction to Carpenter's
volume of selections called English Lyric Poetry; and
the Introduction to Palgrave's Golden Treasury&.
[60] Hegels discussion is marked by an emphasis of the
subjective and individual element, in contrast to epic.
"The basis of the lyrical work cannot be the development of an action
in which a whole world is reflected in all the richness of its manifestations, but the
soul of a man; more than this, of the man as an individual,
placed in individual situations." "Man himself becomes a
work of art; whereas for the epic poet
the subject is a hero outside of himself." "The soul
of the poet is then to be considered as the real principle
of unity for a lyrical poem. On the one hand there
is necessary a definite situation of the soul; in the
next place, the poet must identify himself with that
situation." (Bénard's paraphrase, i, pp. 245, 257,
280.) Here Hegel seems to recognize too slightly
the representative character of the lyrical poet, both
in primitive times and elsewhere. In another passage,
however, he points out that in popular national
poetry "the poet is a mere organ by means of which
the national life manifests itself." (Ibid,, p. 264.)
Another remark of Hegel's, that the most perfectly
lyrical poem is one representing "a sentiment of the
heart concentrated in a particular situation," is closely
parallel to Palgrave's requirement that each poem admitted
to his collection of lyrics
"shall turn on some
single thought, feeling, or situation. In accordance
with this, narrative, descriptive, and didactic poems,
unless accompanied by rapidity of movement, brevity,
and the colouring of human passion, have been excluded."
(Pref. to The Golden Treasury.) The requirement of brevity
is further emphasized by Schelling, who holds that
"by its very conditions the lyric
must be short, as an emotion prolonged beyond a pleasurable
length will defeat its own artistic aim." (Eliz.
Lyrics, p. ix.) A similar position is taken by Erskine,
[61] who, in discussing the unity of the lyric which depends
on the maintenance of a single "lyric stimulus," suggests
that "many long poems, which in quality are
undoubtedly lyrical, in form should be considered a
series of lyric units rather than one song," – for
example, Spenser's Epithalamium, All this is to keep
closely to the original song type of lyric; but when
we have in view the larger class, it is clear that many
poems have an emotional unity of theme, and are
yet built up by an elaborate structure which an added
intellectual element may help to determine. In Erskine's
discussion may further be found an original and
suggestive passage on the structure of the successful
lyric, which, it is held, should have three parts. "In
the first, the emotional stimulus is given – the object,
the situation, or the thought from which the song
arises. In the second part the emotion is developed
to its utmost capacity, until as it begins to flag the
intellectual element reasserts itself. In the third part,
the emotion is finally resolved into a thought, a mental
resolution, or an attitude." (The Eliz, Lyric, p. 17.)
Methods of classification.
To classify lyrical poems, as has already been
said, is even more difficult than in the case of
narrative poetry: the differences between
the types seem to be less distinct. An
obvious method, which does not take
us very far, is to group them according to their
theme: lyrics of love, of grief, of patriotism, of
nature, and the like. Another method, less superficial than
it might seem to be, is to group according to metrical forms:
lyrics in song stanzas, in the
elegiac or heroic stanza, in various short stanzas,
[62] odes, sonnets, ballades, rondeaus, and so forth.
But if we wish a classification somewhat less
mechanical than either of these, we may perhaps
distinguish between those lyrics which keep closest
to the original song type, and those which move
further and further away from this in the direction
of the more formal or reflective expression of
emotion.
Song lyrics.
The first group, then, will be formed of the true
song lyrics, – those which are fitted by nature to
musical utterance. These are more
purely emotional than those of other
groups, more spontaneous and rapid in
utterance, more simple, in style, and are likely to be
more brief. Sometimes their simplicity is such that
they seem almost purely a vehicle for the expression
of emotion through music, and will not show their
worth when tested by mere reading. It is in the
earlier periods of poetry, when emotions are
simpler and less mingled with intellectual ideas, and
when music is a more generally diffused art, that
these song lyrics are at their best. In the Elizabethan age
these conditions were combined with a
high development of poetical imagination and
poetical style; hence those English lyrics which are
true songs, and at the same time have permanent
literary worth, date more numerously from that
period than from any other. Great examples are
certain of the songs of Shakspere, – O Mistress
Mine, Come unto these Yellow Sands, Who is
[63] Sylvia, and Hark, Hark, the Lark, – together with
Sidney's My True Love Hath my Heart, Nash's
Spring, the Sweet Spring, Dekker's O Sweet Content,
and Jonson's Drink to me Only with thine
Eyes. In the modern period the lyric of this type
has proved to be one of the most difficult and rarest
of all forms of poetry, and only one author, Burns,
has done much work in it of the first quality. To
Burns the song lyric was what it was to primitive
man: he composed his songs not as literature, on
paper, but as audible utterance to melodies already
flowing in his mind. Besides those of Burns,
notable songs by modern poets are Scott's imitations
of the popular Scottish ballad-songs (Proud
Maisie being perhaps the best), Shelley's Indian
Serenade, Tennyson's Sweet and Low, and Browning's Cavalier Tunes.
The hymn.
A particular type of the song lyric is found in the
hymn, devoted to the emotions of religion and usually
intended for choral utterance, although in form of expression it may be
as personal as any lyrical type. Hymns
of permanent literary value are very rare, – chiefly,
no doubt, because the statement of religious doctrine
is likely to increase the expository element to
the danger of the imaginative. Those of the early
church were in Latin, and among the best of
English hymns are translations of these, such as
Neale's Jerusalem the Golden and Ellerton's
Welcome Happy Morning. In successful hymns of this
[64] character, some doctrine of the church, or some
aspiration of the individual spirit, gives form to a
simple emotion which finds noble lyrical expression.
Among the great original English hymns are some
of Charles Wesley's (notably Jesus, Lover of my
Soul) some of Cowper's (such as O for a Closer
Walk with God), Heber's The Son of God Goes
Forth to War, Stone's The Church's One Foundation,
and How's For all the Saints who from their
Labors Rest. Other religious lyrics, not intended
originally as hymns, have been used for choral worship,
and will doubtless always be remembered in
connection with the appropriate music; examples of
this sort are Newman's Lead Kindly Light and
certain of the poems of Frederick William Faber, John
Greenleaf Whittier, and Adelaide Proctor.
Lyrics of more literary character.
Passing from the song lyric, we may put in a
second class lyrics which seem analogous to the
song in their formative impulse and the
simplicity and spontaneity of their utterance
so that they may easily be thought
of as seeking musical expression, but which are
nevertheless more literary in style than the pure
song, and are capable of giving their full meed of
pleasure when read as literature. Of this class are
certain of Tennyson's lyrics, such as Tears, Idle
Tears, represented in The Princess as being sung to
the harp, yet quite as well fitted to ordinary oral utterance.
Lamb's Old Familiar Faces, Wordsworth's
Daffodils, Byron's Isles of Greece, and Browning's
[65] Prospice might be placed in the same group. Going
a step further, we find lyrics which in emotional
intensity and unity are allied to the song lyric, but
which are elaborated to a length and with a wealth
of imagery which inevitably dissociate them from
the idea of musical utterance. A great example of
this type is
Shelley's Skylark;
with it we might
group Hood's Bridge of Sighs, Collins's Ode to
Evening, and Wordsworth's Highland Girl. This
test – capacity or fitness for musical utterance –
may be regarded as the most genuine for the
gradation of lyrical poetry; yet by its nature it is
also vague, and difference of opinion would soon
arise such as to make impossible the drawing of
clear lines of division.
*
Reflective lyrics.
But we move away from the song in another way than by elaboration: namely, by the increase of the reflective [66] or the intellectual element, which in the pure or typical lyric plays so slight a part, but which has been more and more introduced here – as in other forms of poetry – with the development of man's reflective and intellectual nature. Thus the lyrics of a poet like Wordsworth, suffused as they are with emotion, are nevertheless so reflective for the most part that – as has already been suggested – they could rarely find a place in the widest boundaries of the song group. The odes of Keats (the Grecian Urn, the Nightingale, and Autumn), although purely lyrical and not at all didactic, are sufficiently reflective to carry us into the same poetical region; and when we pass to such poems as Browning's Abt Vogler, Tennyson's Higher Pantheism, Arnold's Rugby Chapel, and George Eliot's O May I Join the Choir Invisible, we are in a region where the theme is so characteristically intellectual (though still interpreted through emotional appeal) that the song type may be said to be altogether lost.
It is a striking circumstance that three important
lyrical forms, originally associated with song and
music, have become for modern poetry elaborate
literary forms of a highly intellectual or reflective
type. These are the ode, the elegy, and the sonnet.
We must consider each of them briefly by itself.
The ode.
Ode is a term very loosely used in
English terminology, but by derivation
is properly applied to elaborate lyrics
intended for choral utterance with equally elaborate
[67] musical accompaniment. Of this type there are
very few English examples, the most notable being
Dryden's two odes for St. Cecilia's Day. In general
we may accept the definition of the ode proposed by
Mr. Gosse in the Introduction to English Odes:
"Any strain of enthusiastic and exalted lyrical verse,
directed to a fixed purpose, and dealing progressively
with one dignified theme." While the term is often
used of brief poems hardly to be distinguished from
other lyrics (a use chiefly due to familiarity with
the so-called odes, really carmina or songs, of
Horace), the typical ode is a highly elaborated
form. Having a certain emotional unity, like all
lyrics, its theme is nevertheless developed by the
progress of thought guided by the underlying emotion.
In a sense, therefore, it may be called the
most intellectual of lyrical forms; a good ode is
usually more susceptible of analysis by prose paraphrase
than lyrics of other kinds. Odes of this
elaborate character are commonly divided into more
or less intricate metrical sections, or strophes,
*
which correspond more or less closely both with the
structure of the thought – thus being analogous to
paragraphs in prose composition – and with the ebb
and flow of the poet's emotion. Examples of odes
notably successful in this respect, and conforming
in all particulars to our definition, are Spenser's
Epithalamium, Collins's Ode To Liberty, Gray's
[68] Progress of Poesy, Dryden's Alexander's Feast
(peculiar in being set in narrative form), Shelley's
Ode to Naples, Wordsworth's Intimations of Immortality,
Tennyson's Ode on the Death of Wellington,
and Lowell's Harvard Commemoration
Ode. In such poems it is the intense emotional
exaltation and the dignity of the theme which support
the lyric through a length and an intellectual
elaboration which would otherwise be destructive of
lyrical unity.
The elegy.
Elegy is a term also very loosely used. Originally
perhaps meaning a poem of lamentation for the
dead, set to musical accompaniment, it
came to be used in Greek and Latin
literature of all poems written in a
particular metre, their subjects being very various.
In English usage the elegy has usually been a poem
dealing with grief connected with death, although
in some instances classical usage has been followed
in applying the term to poems including a wide
variety of subjects (as, for example, the elegies of
Donne). But in any case the elegy must be viewed
not as a simple lyrical utterance, but as a more or
less formalized and elaborated expression of a
serious emotion. The great example of the type is
Gray's Elegy in a Country Churchyard, where the
mingled emotions aroused by the contemplation of
evening and the home of the dead become the
impulse which develops a generalized reflective
portrayal of the transitoriness of human life. The
re[69]sult is even didactic, in a sense; but lyrical none
the less, in the large use of the term.
The pastoral elegy.
A particular type of this form is the pastoral elegy, in which the poet's sorrow for a lost friend is set in a framework of pastoral narrative or description, conventionalized after a fashion prevalent in late Greek poetry. It might seem that such an unreal setting would be utterly inappropriate for the expression of genuine personal grief; but experience has shown that sorrow may find relief in artistic utterance not only of the more direct sort, where poetry comes nearest to familiar prose speech (as in Tennyson's –
"I sometimes hold it half a sin
To put in words the grief I feel"),
but also in a restrained and formalized art,
suggestive of the conventional ceremonies of funeral
pomp. Examples of these pastoral elegies in our
literature are Spenser's Pastoral Eclogue on the
death of Sir Philip Sidney, Milton's Lycidas, and
Arnold's Thyrsis, In Shelley's Adonais
a somewhat similar classical (though not pastoral) setting
is adopted for the opening of the poem, but
is soon left behind. Finally it should be noted
that the term elegy is sometimes applied to a brief
lyric of lamentation, more fittingly called a dirge.
The sonnet.
[70] The sonnet derives its name from the fact that it
was originally a song to be sung to accompaniment;
yet it is now the least song-like of all
brief lyrics. This seems to be due
chiefly to the fact that its fixed length
and intricate structure (on the rules for this, see
chapter vi) early appeared to fit it for the elaborated
and hence more or less reflective expression
of emotion; and this, true in other languages, is
doubly true for English, since English writers have
always shunned highly intricate metrical forms for
the expression of simple emotions. The sonnet,
therefore, while a favorite form with many of our
greatest poets, is rarely used for other than distinctly
conscious and formal expression; at its best,
too, it expresses a definite intellectual conception
fused with a single emotion. Its two-part structure
(in the case of the Italian form) makes it peculiarly
fitted for that lyrical movement described on a
previous page, where the impulse takes its rise in
the outer world and passes to a point in the inner.
Originally the emotion of love was the conventional
theme for the sonnet; and the love sonnets of the
Elizabethan age, notably those of Sidney, Spenser,
and Shakspere, remain the best examples of this
type in our language. Milton and Wordsworth
made use of the form for very diflferent themes, –
a circumstance to which Landor finely alludes in
the lines:
[71] "He * caught the sonnet from the dainty hand
Of Love, who cried to lose it, and he gave
The notes to Glory;" –
and their poems include on the whole the finest
examples of what may be called the spiritualized
sonnet. In the sonnet beginning –
"Nuns fret not at their convent's narrow room"
Wordsworth briefly discusses the limitations of the
highly restricted form, suggesting that a soul
which has "felt the weight of too much liberty"
may find pleasure in being confined within such
a "scanty plot of ground." This suggests the
character of the lyrical pleasure derived from
this form: a pleasure restrained, fixed, deriving a
certain zest from the difficulty and finish of the
formal expression, and – as has already been
suggested – dependent very often on the combination
of a concept of the mind with a related emotion.
Vers de sociéte.
Finally, we have to notice under lyrical forms
of poetry a type which is allied to the song in
lightness and grace, but distinguished
from the more familiar song types
by both matter and manner. Both
manner and matter give it its name in a French
phrase which has thus far found no adequate
[72] English equivalent:
*
vers de société. This sort
of poetry takes as its theme, in the words of
Professor Schelling, "man living in a highly organized
state of society;" it turns "the conventions of social
life into a subject for art" (Introduction to
Seventeenth Century Lyrics.) Or, in the
words of Mr. Austin Dobson, it represents the mood
and manner of "those latter-day Athenians who, in
town and country, spend their time in telling or
hearing some new thing, and whose graver and
deeper impulses are subordinated to a code of
artificial manners." In the same connection one may
note a stanza in reminiscent praise of the verse of
Sir Frederick Locker-Lampson, in which Mr. Dobson
again suggests the qualities of vers de société:
"a verse so neat.
So well-bred and so witty –
So finished in its last conceit.
So mixed of mirth and pity." †
All this is different from the usual lyrical method,
which is likely to separate from their trivial
environing associations the elemental emotions of
man; yet the modern writers of society verse often
touch their bantering manner with genuine feeling
and imaginative insight. Examples of this type of
[73] poetry will be found among the lyrics of Waller,
Cowley, Herrick, Carew, and Prior, in its earlier
manner; of the later manner William M. Praed,
Charles S. Calverley, Sir Frederick Locker-Lampson,
and Mr. Austin Dobson are notable representatives, –
so also, among American poets, Oliver
Wendell Holmes and Thomas Bailey Aldrich. A
single stanza from Prior's verses called A Better
Answer well exhibits the spirit and style of society
verse:
"What I speak, my fair Chloe, and what I write, shows
The diflference there is betwixt nature and art:
I court others in verse; but I love thee in prose :
And they have my whimsies; but thou hast my heart."
Examples showing more of the tenderness, the gentle
reminiscent manner, introduced into the form by the
later poets, are Locker's To my Grandmother,
Holmes's Dorothy Q. and Last Leaf, and Aldrich's
Thalia, in which "a middle-aged lyrical poet is
supposed to be taking leave of the Muse of
Comedy." On a group of verse forms especially
connected, in recent poetry, with vers de société, see
below in chapter vi, pages 378-384.
For critical accounts of vers de société, one may see, besides the passage from Seventeenth Century Lyrics cited above, the preface of Locker-Lampson to the anthology called Lyra Elegantiarum, and Miss Wells's Preface to A Vers de Société Anthology.
[Die Anmerkungen stehen als Fußnoten auf den in eckigen Klammern bezeichneten Seiten]
[57] * A striking example of this non-autobiographical character of
poetry which is none the less saturated with personal feeling is found
in the "Lucy" poems of Wordsworth, which were written, so far as
has been discovered, without the slightest basis in his own experience.
Yet this is a point where individual poetic characters differ;
with such a poet as Shelley we.may be sure that every lyric is the
record of a real experience, however transitory.
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[65] * Wordsworth, in his classification of poetry (Preface to the
edition of 1815), included under Lyrical not only the song and hymn,
but the ode, the elegy, and the ballad, and said that in all these,
"for the production of their full effect, an accompaniment of music
is indispensable." Of his own poems – very few of which would
seem, to most persons, to be wholly adapted to musical utterance –
he said: "Some of these pieces are essentially lyrical, and therefore
cannot have their due force without a supposed musical
accompaniment; but, in much the greatest part, as a substitute for the classic
lyre or romantic harp, I require nothing more than an animated or
impassioned recitation, adapted to the subject." This has indeed
become the substitute for music, in our time, through a wide range
of poetry. On this point see Erskine (Eliz. Lyric pp. 3, 4), who
quotes Brunetière to the effect that our modem lyrics
sing themselves in the heart, not on the tongue.
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[67] * On the technical characteristics of the ode forms, see chapter vi.
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[71] * i. e., Milton. There were, it should be noted, not a few writers
of "spiritual" sonnets even in the Elizabethan age.
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[72] * The editor of a recent anthology of society verse, Miss Carolyn
Wells, proposes the name "gentle verse."
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[72] † Both quotations are from the prefatory matter of the second
Rowfant Catalogue (1901).
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Erstdruck und Druckvorlage
Raymond Macdonald Alden: An Introduction to Poetry.
For Students of English Literature.
New York: Henry Holt and Company 1909, S. 55-73.
URL: https://archive.org/details/anintroductiont02aldegoog
PURL: https://hdl.handle.net/2027/dul1.ark:/13960/t5w67998k
Die Textwiedergabe erfolgt nach dem ersten Druck
(Editionsrichtlinien).
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Edition
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